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Corruption costs the EU between €179bn and €990bn in GDP terms on an annual basis.

• These figures are higher than the estimate of €120bn included in the 2014 EU Anticorruption Report(ACR), because the estimate in the EU ACR does not account for the indirect effects of corruption (it looks at costs in terms of lost tax revenues and foreign investment due to corruption).

Corruption in the EU has significant social costs and political costs.

• Corruption is associated with more unequal societies, higher levels of organised crime, weaker rule of law, reduced voter turnout in national parliamentary elections and lower trust in EU institutions.

The cost of corruption risk in EU public procurement is around €5bn per year.

• The costs of corruption in public procurement vary considerably between Member States. This estimate is slightly higher than the estimate provided by a previous, large study. This could be because our estimate includes all sectors of public procurement and all Member States, whereas the previous estimate included eight Member States and five sectors.