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However, this rise in neo-nationalism, which contains a clear anti-Chinese strain, should not be caricatured as aggressive militarism. Furthermore, it is strongly contained by democratic safeguards.

In China, the new leadership headed by Xi Jinping has promoted patriotic and nationalist ideas even more strongly than its predecessors, while still concentrating on the traditional aims of economic development and stability. Under these circumstances, the exploitation of anti-Japanese nationalism by the Party should not be overestimated: it is tolerated to a certain degree, but controlled and even repressed as soon as it risks getting out of hand.

Nationalism is thus one aspect, among others, of Chinese and Japanese foreign policy. Other key factors need to be taken into account, which may either moderate or exacerbate it. Measures controlling nationalism are in place, though they have shown themselves to be moderately effective in the face of the radicalization and sharpened sensitivity of public opinion. The acceleration of phases of nationalism along with provocations is coalescing with increasingly antagonistic views so as to reinforce security dilemmas. In fact, tensions today appear to be so strong that they have reached a point of no return. This makes it impossible to restore the status quo ante or to establish some form of reconciliation on new grounds.

Alice Ekman is a research fellow at the Center of Asian Studies (Ifri), and a China specialist. She is also teaching at Sciences Po Paris.

Céline Pajon is a research fellow at the Center of Asian Studies (Ifri), and a Japan specialist.