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Certain Strategies Can Be Applied Universally

• Experience is a key way to avoid surprises.
• Reducing the number of variables also reduces the complexity and size of the solution.
• A measured response preserves future options.
• Teamwork is essential, even for professions perceived as relying on individual actors.

Different Groups Prepare for and Respond to the Unexpected in Different Ways

• Professionals in the most-contrived environments, such as athletic fields or theatrical stages, can plan reactions for nearly any possible contingency.
• Those in moderately chaotic environments like operating rooms rely partially on checklists and rules, but also employ some basic response frameworks.
• In highly chaotic environments, such as behind enemy lines, planning against specific surprise events is almost impossible. Instead, practitioners exercise a general-purpose framework.

Available Response Time Plays a Role

• Tacticians, who must generally react within seconds or minutes, often must first overcome fear and anxiety. A typical protocol is to control panic, buy time, then revert to fundamentals learned in training.
• Strategists, who have days or weeks to react, generally face immediate feelings of anger and an impulse to overreact. A similar process for coping is employed: control emotions, take some initial enabling actions, quickly assemble key staffers, and disseminate a coherent longer-term response.

Surprises Generated by Humans Are Typically More Complex

• When people are at the root of a surprise (as opposed to, say, the environment), the system becomes more complex and the potential outcomes become more unpredictable.
• The biggest surprises often come from third-party actors, not direct adversaries.

This report relates what professionals believe creates surprise, how they respond to it, and how the effects of surprise can be mitigated. To understand how different professions respond to surprise, RAND researchers developed a framework that categorizes professionals' responses to surprise in terms of the time available to respond and the level of chaos in the environment, then conducted discussions with representatives from 13 different professions, including former ambassadors, chief executive officers, military personnel, and physicians. RAND observed that the interviewees all used common coping strategies, such as relying on past experience and trying to reduce the level of chaos in the environment. However, there were also important differences in the responses taken by different types of professionals: "strategists" (e.g., CEOs and foreign service officers) focused more on controlling anger and ego, and communicating and coordinating with others, while "tacticians" (e.g., medical practitioners and SWAT team members) — who typically have a shorter response time — focused more on controlling panic and buying time. The report concludes with recommendations on how practitioners can better prepare for and respond to surprise.

• Chapter One

  Introduction

• Chapter Two

  Why Study Surprise?

• Chapter Three

  Research Objective, Definitions, and Initial Conceptual Models

• Chapter Four

  Research Hypotheses

• Chapter Five

  Research Method

• Chapter Six

  What Strategies Are Common Across Professions?

• Chapter Seven

  How Does the Level of Environmental Chaos Affect Practitioners' Responses to Surprises?

• Chapter Eight

  How Do Strategists Differ from Tacticians in Dealing with Surprise?

• Chapter Nine

  Surprise as an Opportunity

• Chapter Ten

  Helpful Lessons from Specific Professions

• Chapter Eleven

  Key Observations and Their Implications